学会提问（五）哪些词意义不明确？

Whatwordsorphrasesareambiguous?...

What words or phrases are ambiguous?

前面我们了解了论证（argument）中的几个重要基本要素：issue，conclusion, reasons.

当你确定了结论及原因，得到了明显的框架，还是需要鉴别这些部分的细微含义。确定这些关键词句的细微含义往往是你是否同样某人观点的必要步骤。如果对于关键词句意义不甚了解，很有可能会误解作者的意思。

什么样的词和短语是有歧义的呢？what words and phrases are ambiguous?

l  The confusing flexibility of words

因为我们往往假设词句的意思显而易见造成我们经常误解作者的意图。

We often misunderstand what we read or hear because we presume that the meaning of words is obvious.

歧义往往是因为词句中蕴含着多重的意思。

Ambiguity refers to the existence of multiple possible meanings for a word or phrase.

l  Locating key terms and phrases

a)   Review the issue for possible key terms 反复思考评估论题的关键词

b)  Look for crucial words or phrases within the reasons and conclusion 在原因和结论中找关键词和短语

c)   Keep an eye out for abstract words and phrases 仔细留心抽象的词或短语

d)  Use reverse role-playing to determine how someone might define certain words and phrases differently 通过角色调换来确定某人对于特定词或者短语的含义

l  Checking for ambiguity 辨别歧义

a)   Do you understand the meaning of a word?

你了解词的含义吗？

b)  Do not assume that you and author mean the same thing

不要假设你和作者意思是一致的

c)   Do not assume that a word has one specific meaning

不要假设一个词只有一种明确的含义

要用“你的意思是什么？”代替“我明白你的意思”。要经常发问：“任何词或短语有不同的意思？

l  Context and ambiguity 语境和歧义

语境、作者背景、传统用法这些都是我们判定关键词句含义的要素。

Writers and speakers only rarely define their key terms. Thus, typically your only guide to the meaning of an ambiguous statement is the context in which the words are used. By context, we mean the writer’s or speaker’s background, traditional uses of the term within the particular controversy, and the words and statements preceding and following the possible ambiguity. All three elements provide clues to the meaning of a potential key term or phrase.

l  Ambiguity, definitions, and the dictionary

在评估有争议的论题时，同义词及举例子是不够的。用精确的定义来确定标准，越精确越好。

For critical evaluation of most controversial issues, synonyms and examples are inadequate. They fail to tell you the specific properties that are crucial for an unambiguous understanding of the term. Useful definitions are those that specify criteria for usage—the more specific, the better.

l  Ambiguity and loaded language

既定观点词语（Loaded Words, loaded language, loaded term）、情感性用语（emotive language）、或偏见性用语（prejudicial language），是指使用带有情感、评价意义的字词描述客观事实。例如用「野草」取代「植物」或用「野兽」取代「动物」。

Terms and phrases have both denotative and connotative meanings. The denotative meaning refers to the agreed-upon explicit descriptive referents for use of the word, the kinds of meanings we have emphasized thus far in this chapter. There is another important meaning, however, that you need to attend to. The connotative meaning is the emotional associations that we have to a term or phrase. For example the phrase “raising taxes” may have similar denotative meanings to people but each meaning triggers very different emotional reactions.

Terms that trigger strong emotional reactions are called loaded terms. Their ability to move us outweighs their descriptive meanings. Such terms make trouble for critical thinking because they short-circuit thought and trick the mind by directly contacting its emotional circuits while bypassing the descriptive meaning circuits.

l  Ambiguity and your own writing and speaking

在写作中，必须克服那种自定义的诱惑。在不同的文化、经验、意识形态中，词句往往有多重不同的意义，这点很容易被忽视。

In the solitude of writing, you must overcome the temptation to believe that a definition is self-evident. It’s easy to forget the overwhelming diversity of cultures, experiences, and ideologies, all of which add layers of meaning to words.

词句的含义对作者来说很清晰，但也许对读者来说难以定义清楚。

Because the meaning is clear to the writer , it might be difficult to identify what is unclear to the reader.

a)   Effective writers strive for clarity. 有效率的作者努力清晰。

b)  During your initial research, we urged you to immerse yourself in the ongoing discussion of your issue in popular and academic publications.

在最初的研究时，最好把自己沉浸在在流行和学术刊物中去。

c)   Writing need not be a completely solitary activity. 写作不必是完全封闭。

与你的朋友同学去分享你的结论和理由，鼓励他们提问，观察他们是否运用了与你不同的词句含义。Our last suggestion to avoid presuming your key terms are obvious is to start a dialogue. Share your conclusion and reasons with others, such as friends and classmates. Encourage them to ask questions. Observe whether they use the term in a manner significantly different than you do.

一但确认有歧义，必须澄清。在说服别人接受你的结论和原因之前，请确保对方理解的结论和原因是和你一致的。

When you fear ambiguity of expression, carefully define your terms.

    关注 乡下园园的花园